Hunters of the Arctic

Early Arctic Hunters
 Despite generally similar environmental contexts, groups reflect a great deal of cultural diversity

 The Paleo-Arctic Tradition (ca. 10,000-7000 B.P.)

Poorly known complexes, but with material culture reflects cultural roots in the Dyukhtai tradition of Siberia

Particularly wedge-shaped cores for production of microblades

Organic components of technology have not survived, but microblades probably used as barbs for hunting weapons

High level of intersite variation indicative of collector model of settlement

Occurs throughout Alaska and as far east as the western Yukon Territory

Many sites undoubtedly inundated by rising sea level

Famous Paleo-Arctic site:  Anangula in the Aleutians

 Ocean Bay and Kodiak traditions (at least 6000 B.P. to ca. 1000 B.P.)

• Centered on Ocean Bay and Kodiak islands, south of the Alaskana Peninsula, in the Pacific Ocean
•  Marine mammal hunting, salmon fishing, caribou hunting
•  First use of ulu
•  Ground slate lance blades in Kodiak tradition
•  Surging population growth, elaboration of material culture in Kachemak stage of the Kodiak tradition (ca. 2500-1000 B.P.)
•  Pecked stone lamps with animal and human effigies
•  Elaborate mortuary rituals (including use of “trophy” skulls)

 Aleutian Tradition (ca. 4500 to 200 B.P.)

•  Earliest known occupation of Aleutian Islands is at Anangula site (8000 B.P.)
•  Degree of cultural continuity from the Paleo-Arctic to Aleutian Tradition times is debated (most would argue against continuity)
•  Dominated by chipped stone tools (rather than ground slate of Kodiak tradition)
•  Emphasis on marine mammals and sea fish
•  Semi-subterranean winter houses, with superstructures consisting of driftwood, whale bone, and sod covering

Alaskan Peninsula and eastern shores of Bering Strait, and eventually into interior Alaska (also apparently colonists of Eastern Arctic)

May have developed out of Paleo-Arctic traditions, although it probably was a later intrusive culture with roots in the Bel’kachinsk culture of Siberia (ca. 5000-4000 B.P.)

Commonly believed to associated with ancestral Eskimos

Most important innovation of the tradition was the bow and arrow (4000 B.P. from Asia)

 

Key sites:

Kachemak Bay site

Onion Portage

Brooks River site (with evidence for 14 semi-subterranean sod-roofed houses)

At same time Arctic Small Tool Tradition appears in the west, it shows up in minor occurrences on the shores of Arctic ocean, along the Canadian archipelago, and in western Greenland.  Causes and circumstances of these early migrations are unknown.

 

Apart from poor knowledge about initial settlement, the Arctic Small Tool Tradition of the east is divided into two stages:

•  Independence I Stage (4000 to 3700 B.P.)
•  Pre-Dorset (3700 to ca. 2600 B.P.)

Independence I Stage (4000 to 3700 B.P.)

• The northernmost of early hunters in the Arctic
• Highly mobile, small groups, subsisting off of musk ox, and occasionally sea birds, ring seal, arctic char, and other aquatic resources
• Depended on accumulation of winter stores of meat;  coming as close as 434 miles from North Pole, these people likely “hibernated” during the 2.5 months of darkness in mid-winter

Pre-Dorset (3700 to ca. 2600 B.P.)

• Core of early settlement:  islands of northern Hudson Bay, northern and southern shores of Baffin Island, northern Labrador, and west coast of Foxe basin
• Seal hunters (using barbed thrusting harpoons at winter breathing holes)
• Caribou, musk ox, polar bear, and small mammals taken with spears and bow and arrow
• Arctic char taken in mass for use in fall months (before ocean froze)

Norton Tradition of Western Arctic (3000 to 1200 B.P.)

Poorly defined tradition

Best known from Alaskan shore of the Bering Strait

Maritime tradition, but caribou important

Introduced lamps for burning oil and pottery (fiber-tempered linear stamped and cordmarked pottery, followed by check stamped)

Increased material culture elaboration with time, including appearance of the Ipiutak art tradition of bone carving

Developed out of Norton populations of Bering Strait Islands

Specialized in ocean subsistence, particularly whale hunting

Enabled by technological innovation like the toggling harpoon

Evolved from Pre-Dorset roots in Eastern Arctic

Appeared at time when climate became colder after period of warming episode

Seal and caribou hunting continued to form core of subsistence, but also included musk ox, small land mammals, birds, walrus, narwhal, whales, and polar bears

They lacked dog sleds, sophisticated whaling gear, harpoon floats, and bows and arrows (note that Pre-Dorset peoples used bow and arrow)

Dorset harpoons were thrusting variety (suggest that most encounters with animal were close and either terrestrial of on ice)

Distinctive Dorset art tradition

Disappearance of Dorset traced by some to eastward expansion of Thule culture

  With more complex subsistence technology, did Thule outcompete Dorset?
  Or, given their different subsistence practices, did Thule and Dorset coexist for many centuries?

An expansion predicated on innovations for hunting on land, ice, and water

Dog sled, umiak (large skin boat), kayak

Enabled much greater range of exploitation, and transportation of large quantities of resources back to home bases

Highly developed technology and social organization for whale hunting in open waters

Appears to be impetus for eastern migration along shores of Arctic Ocean

• Expansion throughout much of eastern Arctic
• Specialized in bowhead whaling
• Used native sources of iron long before contact
• Little Ice Age of A.D. 1400-1600 may have contributed to demise of Classic Thule lifeways