Readings

Hatch, Robert A. 'Science - Sex - Race: A reader.' {Photocopy: articles & chapters; c. 100pp}
Gould, Stephen Jay. The mismeasure of man. New York & London, 1981. 
Spelman, Elizabeth V. Inessential woman: Problems of exclusion in feminist thought. Boston, 1988. 
Vetterling-Braggin, Mary, ed. "Femininity," "masculinity," and "androgyny:" Totowa, NJ, 1982. 

Course Objectives 

1. To identify and compare positivist and postmodern claims regarding the human body; to outline means of adjudicating conflicting claims; to evaluate the status and relevance of evidence in relation to theoretical claims to knowledge. 

2. To identify assumptions in the use of definition, classification, metaphor, personification, and to evaluate criteria affecting claims about sex and race. 

3. To identify issues involving sexual and racial identity; to analyze theories of self-identity including androgyny, hermaphroditism, transsexualism, race and color. 

4. To identify research studies and forms of evidence supporting relevant similarities and differences regarding sex and regarding race. 

5. To analyze issues involving: a) Classification and taxonomic development; b) Androgyny; c) Disease; d) Assimilation; e) Measurement (including mental testing); f) Demography; g) Scientific generalization. 

6. To examine and determine for oneself the limits of science, the relation of science to public policy, and the place of self-empowerment in a democratic and scientific culture. 

7. To analyze and provide research opportunities on selected topics involving eugenics, genetic disease, pornography, athletics, beauty and body image, sex education, IQ and mental testing, Afro-centrism. 

Recommended Books at the Library:  See the Study Guide for further Bibliography 

Attendance and participation is expected and all work must be submitted to complete the Seminar.
Evaluation takes four forms: 

1. Comprehension of assigned readings & discussion; Three written 'Critiques' (500 words each) of required seminar readings {20%} to be completed before each seminar session. 
2. Attendance and active participation in seminar discussion is assumed {approximately 20%}; 
3. Research resulting in Lesson Plan Drafts for brief in-class Presentation of issues {approximately 10%}. 
4. Final Project: Three Lesson Plans {8-10 pages each}: (50%): Nota Bene: Typed Outline & Bibliography (hardcopy & electronic file on diskette in, e.g., Word; WPerfect; RichText; or similar).  For examples of earlier Lesson Plans, click. 

Plotting our Course: Science, Sex, Race 

The Human Body 

Scientific Discourse: Language(s) & the Human Body 

Classification: Ordering, Sorting, Ranking? 

Questions of Origin & Identity 

Evidence: Facts, Theories, Practices 

Evidence: Is Anything Neutral?: Observation, 'Raw' Data, Measurement, Testing 

Evidence: Guilty or Not Guilty?: Witnesses, Testifying, Persuasion, Bias 

Science, Scientism, Ethics: The Limits of Science 

Predicting Genetic Identity

Science & Sex Education 

Science & Athletics

Science & Body Image

Science & Aptitude Testing

Racism/Sexism in Scientific Research

Plotting our Course: Science - Sex - Race 

General Overview: Review Table of Contents, Introductions, Indices to all three required books.
Read: Gould: 'Introduction,' 19-25; Chpt 2, 'American Polgeny...,' 30-72; 'Missing Heads,' 73-112; 'Missing Bodies,' 113-145; Spelman: Intro, 1-17; Spelman: 'Hairy Cobblers & Philosopher Queens,' 19-36;Vetterling-Braggin, 'Introduction,' 3-9; 10-30; 'Sex Roles: The Argument from Nature, 40-48; 'Nurture Theories: A Critique, 49-59; 'Freud,' 60-74;
Reader: 'Pick a Color;' Science, 'Gender & Culture of Science;' Brownmiller: 'The Body,' 23-51; Martin: 'Science and Women's Bodies,' 69-82.

Questions to Guide the First Readings: 

1. How would you describe Gould's view of knowledge? 

2. What is Gould's view of the relation of science and culture? 

3. How would you evaluate Gould's treatment of ranking, hierarchy, progress, and the role of metaphor in science? Compare and contrast metaphor and measurement. 

4. How do we account for racial and sexual differences in humans? Traditional accounts include: biological factors; environment; cultural factors; myths; symbols; behavioral patterns in primitive societies; innate dispositions; individual desires; arbitrary cultural creations. 

5. How are conflicting claims regarding similarity and difference to be adjudicated? What reasons are given for divergent theories? What solutions are proposed? 

6. What data or evidence is given to support various racial and sexual theories? Traditional accounts include: animal models; facts; self-evident beliefs; observations; raw data; expert opinion; interpersonal agreement; individual interpretation; logic; history. 

7. When is generalization appropriate? what are the limits of generalization? when, why? 

8. What is the One-Many and universal-particular problem? For example, Gould writes on monogenism-polygenism; Spelman of woman-women. How do the authors identify problems? What language difficulties do you find? 

9. What are the problems associated with similarity and difference? What is the dilemma of difference? What is essentialism? Characterize the traditional argument of essentialism. How is essentialism contrasted with accidentalism and nominalism? 

10. Think of examples that focus on issues of identity, classification, evidence, disease {abnormal; pathology}, androgyny, sex and gender, and scientific generalization. 

11. Think of examples involving inequality and discrimination; what criteria are involved? What would count as evidence? For whom? 

12. Is gender a useful metaphor in science? Is there discrimination in the culture of science against individuals (females; African Americans?). Are women or blacks especially suited to certain types of investigation? Do groups of people (women, African Americans, Jews, Christian Scientists) have unique views and distinct practices related to: competition vs. collaboration; nurturance; standards of performance; specialization vs. generalization; objectivity vs. subjectivity? 

13. Does the investigator influence the outcome or results of the investigation? 

Discussion Questions: 

1. How would you characterize various views of the human body? What theoretical assumptions are implicit in different paradigms of the body? Consider: the body as diseased or healthy; the body as colored, sexed, classed, neutered; the body as a scientific object; the body as distinct from the mind; the body as text; the body as metaphor; the body as political object or as an object of discrimination; the body as religious or poetic object; as perfect. 

2. What is positivism? Describe a positivist theory of the body. Identify positivist assumptions in the readings; cite specific instances in the text(s). 

3. What is a postmodern theory of the body? Cite examples. 

4. How have views of the body changed historically? 

5. What is the relationship of Judeo-Christian tradition and the body? 

6. How would you explain menstruation to a young girl (Martin, 77)? How would you characterize the explanation, e.g., factual; scientifically based; scientific language; what does it indicate about your beliefs about the body? 

7. How would you describe a different skin color to an African-American child? What would you say? Be prepared to discuss the 'dilemma of difference?' {Spelman, 192, n. 24}. 

8. What is 'boomerang perception'? {Spelman, 12}. 

9. Brownmiller: Is this essay relevant to today's young men and women? Why or why not? What is 'perfectionism?' What positive connotations are associated with perfection? what is a 'perfect body?' 

10. Emily Martin focuses on seeing and observation of the human body. Is observation an 'impoverished' form of knowledge? Why or why not? How is the postmodern view of the body characterized? What is the discourse of science--how is the term used? 

11. How does Freidson define illness? What is the social construction of illness? What assumptions must be made to define 'deviance'? 

12. In what ways does Schiebinger characterize 18th-century views of sex and race? Have criteria of classification changed? What reasons, if any, can you identify such changes? 

13. Distinguish between anatomy and physiology. How has anatomy changed since the 17th century? What language and metaphors were used that are now defunct? 

14. Select from the readings an example of a word related to the human body; provide examples of how the same word is used differently in several contexts. Identify connotative distinctions. 

Scientific Discourse: Language & the Human Body 

Read: Gould: Chpt 5, 'The Hereditarian Theory of IQ; Skim Chpt 6; Read Chpt. 7, Conclusion.
Spelman: Continue: 'Who's Who in the Polis,' 37-56; 'One and Many,' 133-159;
Vetterling-Braggin: Continue (self-paced).
Reader: Martin: 'Prejudice,' 152-162; 'Language and Identity,' 17-21; Baker: 'Pricks & Chicks,' 161-182; Money: Chpt 47: 'The Conceptual Neutering of Gender & the Criminalization of Sex,' 591-600;  George Will: Editorial, 'The Latest on the sensitivity front;' DSM III-R, 'Gender Identity Disorders,' 33-35; Trebilcot: 'Two Forms of Androgynism,' 70-78;' Montagu: 'Statement on Race,' ix-20; Magner: 'When Whites Teach Black Students,' Chronicle of Higher Education. 

Discussion Questions to Guide the Second Readings: 

1. How does Gould characterize the reification fallacy? What is anthropomorphism? Personification? 

2. Define metaphor; give examples of the use of metaphor. 

3. Why do we want to communicate? What is language? What is scientific discourse; i.e., again, how are the terms used? 

4. What are the assumptions of the 'social construction' paradigm? What is 'bracketed'? Why do deconstructionists want to 'destabilize' the body? What are the assumptions and implications of this 'move'? 

5. Identify and list ways that prejudice and language are associated; give examples. 

6. Give examples of perfectly neutral language. 

7. Are there neutral descriptions of the body? Provide examples and/or arguments. 

8. Name five different kinds of language. 

9. Identify ahistorical (universal; enduring) concepts related to the body; give examples. 

10. What is an hypothesis? How are hypotheses used in science? What is the relationship between facts and theories? Are there neutral facts? How are you using the term 'neutral'? 

11. How are facts related to language? 

12. How does Mary Douglas use the term 'natural symbol'? Is there a relationship between natural and artificial language? Explain; provide examples. 

13. Douglas states: 'The human body is common to us all. Only our social condition varies.' Do you agree? Why or why not? 

14. Why do we want 'neutral' concepts? What is a 'neutral' concept? What are the implications of non-neutral conceptualizations? For example, consider 'sexuality' and sex behavior.' 

15. Some authors suggest that we are 'bewitched' by language, others that we are 'blinded' by metaphor, 'seduced' by words. With what do we contrast metaphor? Consider examples to discuss. 

Discussion Questions: 

1. Why do we want to classify? Rank? Sort? Order? When is it defensible? 

2. When is a hierarchy invidious? Give examples from Spelman. 

3. Why is it questionable--and sometimes detrimental--to highlight differences between people? Cite examples from the readings. 

4. What is Gould's view of a hierarchy? What assumptions do we make when we classify? What are the alternatives to classification? 

5. Are there different kinds of human nature? Are there kinds of human characteristics? Can we rank people? Is there a 'dilemma of difference?' 

6. Why do we generalize? Are all generalizations unsound? Spelman {p 8} states, 'the more universal the claim, the more likely it is to be false.' Do you agree? Why or why not? Provide reasons for you view. 

7. Gould characterizes 'lumpers' and 'spliters.' Carefully re-read pp 42-45. 

8. Aristotle, Lamarck, Linnaeus: Discuss traditional methods of classification. 

9. How do we use the terms: class, order, genus, species? Where is the individual? Is knowledge possible of the individual? How are definitions related to classification? 

10. The American philosopher and psychologist William James spoke of a 'boomin' buzzin' confusion.' Thomas S. Kuhn quotes James on this point; what are there concerns? 

11. Is Spelman's analogy with airport turnstiles useful? Explain. What disadvantages can you identify? What key issues or common errors does it illustrate? Explain. 

12. Trebilcot focuses on two forms or two senses of the word 'androgyny.' Why is this necessary? Questionable? Distinguish between androgyny and unisex; give examples; explain. 

13. For 'Saturday Nite Live' fans, why do some people find the character 'Pat' so funny, curious, or relevant? 

14. What is striking about the 'Statement on Race' discussed by Montagu? Explain. 

15. A recent film was entitled 'White Guys Can't Jump;' perhaps you will recall the affair involving Jimmy the Greek. Were his claims about African-American physical superiority racist? Offensive? Complimentary? Ignorant? Should he have been fired? 

Questions of Origin & Identity 

Read: Spelman: Continue: Chpt 7: 'Now You She Her, Now You Don't,' 160-187;
Vetterling-Braggin: Continue: 'Androgyny,' 161-258; 'Sex & Social Roles: How to Deal with the Data,' 128-147
Gould: 'The Real Error of Cyril Burt,' 234-320;
Reader: Money: Venuses Penuses (1986) Chpt 11: 'Hermaphroditism: Recommendations Concerning Assignment of Sex, Change of Sex, and Psychologic Management,' 133-151;  Editor's Introduction to Questions of Evidence: 76-78.

Discussion Questions to Guide the Third Readings:  : 

1. Is there a common human essence, a common core, a bridgehead of humanity? For example, whiteness, blackness, womanness, maleness? 

2. Is identity socially constructed, defined only in the context of relations with others? In what sense is identity medically assigned? Psychologically assumed? prescribed? 'Should...?' Be prepared to distinguish and discuss in detail 'sex,' 'gender,' 'gender identity,' and 'gender role.' What's at stake? 

3. Define essentialism; what are the arguments and what are the criticisms? Compare and contrast nature theories and nurture theories; the inside and the outside of the body; biological and cultural determinism. 

4. Distinguish between sex and gender? Compare Vetterling-Braggin and Spelman. 

5. Can we separate woman's voice from racial or ethnic voice? 

6. Compare and contrast metaphors that Spelman uses for the 'generic woman' and the 'patch-work quilt.' 

7. What is Money's position regarding gender identity and gender role? What would Money mean by 'sex identity'? Analyze Money's argument relating sex, gender identity, and gender role? What are the criteria? Does he conflate description and prescription?

8. Is identity assigned by someone? Would you consider Money and 'expert'? If he is an expert, what are the limits of his expertise? 

9. Is it useful to begin discussions with concrete particulars? abstractions? definitions? Why do we use examples to illustrate theoretical statements in theory development, e.g., starting with one person in clinical practice? 

10. Consider the relation of theory, practice, and expert authority; consider Money's experience relating 'this is what happens' and 'this is/ought to be done.' 

Discussion Questions: 

1. How does science deal with bias? 

2. Why is evidence considered a connecting link between the various disciplines, between branches of knowledge, between professions? Describe and explain types of connecting evidence. Be prepared to discuss: Cause; correlation; conflict; reliability; validity. 

3. What is the relationship, if any, between language and evidence. Give examples from the film 'Twelve Angry Men.' 

4. Give examples of how material evidence can be dismissed (switch blade; shoe size in Martin Guerre, etc.) 

5. Distinguish material evidence, eyewitness evidence, documentary evidence, and testimonial evidence. What other types of evidence may be relevant? 

6. Are some forms of evidence more persuasive than others? more important others? do for whom? in what circumstances? do experts conflict? disciplines? 

7. What makes testimony credible? Why are some testimonials persuasive? manipulative? seductive? self-deceived? unjust? dishonest? 

8. Why do courts deny certain information to the jury? Whose interests are protected? Why? In rape cases, for example, do you consider the past sexual behavior of the accused relevant? the complainant? Defend your position. 

9. A common court case involves drunken driving. Consider proof of 'drunkenness;' appearance, (speech patterns, blood-shot and watery eyes), memory, criteria for the field test; laboratory tests--blood levels, etc. 

10. Can we distinguish objective from subjective evidence? Consider false positives and false negatives) and alternative explanations. 

11. What metaphors does Kevles use? What is the connection between genetic testing and eugenics? Is eugenics racist? sexist? Consider medical tests--e.g., prenatal. Would you request information about the sex of your unborn child? Why? Under what conditions would you undergo amniocentesis? 

12. What is reductionism? Is biochemistry reductionist? the evidence foolproof? 

13. Is there evidence or are there reasonable grounds for racial and/or gender criteria in police stop, search, and seizure policies? Why or why not? Give reasons and examples. 

14. What are your views regarding the insanity defense? the so-called 'Twinkie' defense? the so-called 'PMS' defense? Is IQ relevant? Age? What are your criteria? What kinds of evidence are relevant? When, if ever, are race, sex, and class appropriate issues in law? 

Discussion Questions: 

1. Analyze Sokal's arguments, interpretations, and assumptions; what is his position? Is his evidence persuasive? Enumerate the issues and the implications of the various approaches to psychological testing as well as the historical interpretations that appear at odds. 

2. Define 'validity' and 'reliability.' Why are these concepts important? Give concrete examples or illustrations of each. 

3. Be prepared to discuss the process of generalization. What types of generalization appear in science? law? How do they relate to race and sex? Consider statements that involve 'all, none, some' as well as statistical generalization. 

4. What do you understand to be 'raw data'? How is raw data related to theory? Give examples; consider difficulties with the concept of raw data. 

5. There are many forms of medical testing. What do you consider to be the strengths and limitations of medical testing; give examples. 

6. What is meant by 'false positives' and false negatives' in medical testing? Explain; give examples. 

7. Measurement is considered an important component of scientific method, evidence, and demonstration. Give examples of different types of measurement. Consider, for example, weight, length (distance), size, temperature, strength, IQ. What similarities and differences do you find? Are they relevant? If so, how? Explain with examples. 

8. Give examples of how we use the term 'observation.' What do we actually 'see'? Are there passive objects? objective subjects? what is the role of the observer? What is a participant observer? 

9. What is bias? How do we evaluate bias in scientific research? In ordinary experience? How do avoid bias? What claims about bias are most and least suspect? 

10. Evaluate the interpretations of the case of the Speluncean Explorers {Fuller}; describe each of the issues in the case and analyze how each interpretation addresses each issue. What is your position? Why? Defend your position on each issue that you have identified. 

11. What is Gould's point about the 'median' and why is it relevant of science, sex, and race? Give examples. 

12. What are the issues of evidence involved in 'Wiretapping...'? of bias? of law? of ethics? 

Discussion Questions: 

1. We are told that an old Russian proverb proclaims: 'No one lies like an eyewitness.' Explain; give examples and/or counter proverbs. 

2. In the film 'Twelve Angry Men,' why was Henry Fonda persuasive? effective? Give examples. 

3. There is discussion in the media about 'victimhood.' Describe what you take the term to mean. What is the 'victim's perspective'? victim empowerment? 

4. Rape is a violent crime. Discuss the dynamics of rape; consider rape from the perspectives of science, sex, and race (e.g., the role of evidence,witnesses, testimony, and persuasion). What other issues and concerns do you find? 

5. Science is invoked in child abuse cases. What evidence is involved? what issues do you find regarding credibility? What is implied in the trinity of 'women, children, and madmen'? 

6. Define pornography; distinguish pornography and erotic literature. What criteria do you invoke? Why? Is science involved? Evidence? Defend your position. 

7. Freedom of speech sometimes involves issues of science, sex, and race. What is 'hate speech'? Political correctness? 

8. In comparing a speech code with a dress code, identify similar criteria. Which criteria overlap? Are there criteria specific to one or to the other? 

9. The readings have mentioned a longstanding distinction between 'is and ought.' Give examples of a social convention that has changed (e.g., Ms/Mrs/Miss; retaining a women's last name in marriage); one that should change; one that did change but should not have changed (e.g., increasing use of nursing homes for the elderly). 

10. What is sexual privacy? How is it similar to other forms of privacy issues? Different? What is an unnatural act? Consider the possibility that sexual privacy is an oxymoron. Do you trust the results of surveys on sexual behavior? Give reasons. 

11. In the Case of the Speluncean Explorers, describe the distinct theories of the chief justices views. Which do you support? Why? Be prepared to defend you position. 

Optional Readings: George Will: Editorial: 'A Recent Perversion of Feminism,' {1p}; Feyerabend: 'Experts in a Free Society,' 631-647; Gould: 143-145; 335-336;

Discussion Questions: 

1. What is at issue in the George Will editorial? Is there a 'radical feminist' position? A 'conservative' position? What are Will's assumptions regarding action? language? What are his assumptions about the 'victim'? the subject? 

2. How does Feyerabend use the term 'expert'? 'dilettante'? What are his assumptions about knowledge? method? power? autonomy? democracy? anarchy? evidence? Do you agree? 

3. Compare Feyerabend's position with that of Ehrenreich. What similarities do you find? Differences? Provide specific textual examples. 

4. Describe and define the 'tyranny' of science. 

5. Evaluate the issues of the 'Sweet Case.' What are the facts of the case? Analyze how Darrow presented the evidence; the role of assumptions; interpretation. 

6. In Buck v. Bell, discuss 'mental defective.' Define idiot, imbecile, moron. Should the state sterilize? Yes or no; by what arguments and authorities? 

7. Is pornography immoral? Yes or no? What criteria and evidence supports your position. If pornography is immoral, should it be judged illegal? What is the relationship between legal and moral arguments? What 'rights' are in conflict? Explain. What is pornography? Who decides? Define harm; offense. What is the skeptical fallacy? Community standards. 

8. What is a 'right answer'? Describe the elements of Dworkin's argument; is he persuasive? Why or why not? 

9. How does Radner use the term 'pseudoscience'? What are the criteria? Do you agree? Give examples to support your position. 

10. Discuss how Radner deals with the question of evidence; compare Radner's views with other authors that we have discussed. 

Rcommended Readings: Annas: 'Privacy Rules of DNA Databanks,' 2346-2356; Harron, Burnside, Beauchamp: {Health and Human Values}, Chpt 8, ' Applied Genetics--Information and Intervention,' 165-185; Cooke: {Hippocrates, Sept 1993}, 'Sentenced to Live,' 51-55; McKusick: 'Medical Genetics,' {JAMA, 270, no. 19}, 2351-2356. 

Discussion Questions: 

1. Does DNA provide a different kind of concern regarding privacy? Why or why not? Consider, for example, the similarities and differences between DNA information and fingerprint information. Explain your position and provide examples. 

2. In the use of DNA data banks, what is the role of science? law? the individual? Are these legal, moral, practical concerns? 

3. Harron et al. argue that the science of genetics opens questions that are entirely unprecedented. Do you agree? 

4. Consider the laws that were enacted regarding the extra 'Y' chromosome in certain males. What is at issue? 

5. What is at issue in the debate about recombinant DNA? What is genetic engineering? Should genetic testing be required and legislated? be accepted as sound medical practice? as an individual choice? Should certain procedures be required given certain findings from genetic testing? Would you participate in genetic testing--for yourself, spouse, family? What obligations, if any, do individuals have to the unborn or to future society? 

6. How could genetic information possibly affect your life? friends and family? employer? insurance companies? How do these issues affect questions of sex? sexuality? gender? race? 

7. I have some good news and some bad news: Consider the case of Colin Macallister; can you identify with his situation? Delineate the issues and apparent paradoxes. 

8. McKusick suggests that medical genetics is virtually unique and has difficulty providing a definition; evaluate this approach. How are the following terms used: genetic disorder? biochemical derangements? inborn errors? chromosomal aberration? gene therapy? What is the relation of science to medicine? subspecialization? diagnosis? commercialization? 

Recommended Readings: Vetterling-Braggin: 'Sex Equality and Education,' 279-300; O'Brien: 'Racial Discrimination in Education,' 1297-1343; Mort: {Dangerous Sexualities}, 'From Purity to Social Hygiene: Early Twentieth Century Campaigns for Sex Education,' 153-203. 

Discussion Questions: 

1. What are the issues raised by Vetterling-Braggin? What are her assumptions? How does she identify the problems? How would you describe her approach and her method? What solutions are suggested? What problems and solutions has she overlooked? 

2. The O'Brien reading suggests that the question of race and equality in education was addressed by the courts at a surprisingly late date. What were the legal and constitutional issues? 

3. Why was Brown v. Board of Education a landmark case in dealing with race and equality in education? What other issues were involved? 

4. Define de facto and de jure; give examples from the reading and think of other examples that apply to questions involving science, sex, and race. 

5. Develop the strongest case possible for 'separate but equal.' 

6. Develop the strongest case possible for 'complete integration.' 

7. Define the following terms: equal; equality; equity: consider the relationship of the following terms: identity {unique; individual}; equal; same; equality {equitable; fair; impartial; just}; equivalent; commensurable; substitutable; translatable. 

8. Consider the relations of the following words: difference; discrete; distinct; other; dissimilar; unlike; unequal; diverse; opposite; bias; contrary; partial; prejudiced; corrupt. 

9. Mort suggests a connection between a traditional biblical account and the new-improved-industrial strength version offered by 'modern science.' Explain. What is at issue? 

10. What are contemporary issues in sex education? How do they relate, respectively, to science, sex, and race? How do the issues relate, respectively, to science? sex? race? Is there a pattern--or consistent theme--in the relations that you identify? 

11. How was the term 'racial health' used? Moral hygiene? Compare 'right knowledge' with 'traditional purity.' 'Sexualization of motherhood'. Give examples. 

Recommended Readings: Vetterling-Braggin: Jane English, 'Sex Equality in Sports,' 259-278; Jane R. Martin, 'Sex Equality & Education: A Case Study,' 279-300. 
 

Discussion Questions: 

1. Jane English {in Vetterling-Braggin} identifies several issues: which are most important? have some issues been ignored? What are English's assumptions? How would you describe her approach? 

2. 'Unpack' the concept of equal opportunity--e.g., distinguish equal opportunity from non-discrimination; equity; parity; separate, balanced, equal, possible, probable access, etc.; be prepared to discuss English's distinctions. 

3. Analyze English's argument based on difference and fairness. For example, are female athletes different from minority or ethnic athletes? Consider {again} the question of categories in your analysis. 

4. Discuss 'women's specific traits' (p. 265); that 'women are naturally inferior...' (p. 266). 

5. Jane Martin begins her discussion by addressing Plato's theory of education and the just state. What's the point, what are the issues? 

6. Discuss {again} the body and soul problem; how does it relate to Martin's argument regarding fairness and equality? Consider how questions of category apply to the various arguments of Plato, Socrates and to Martin. 

7. Discuss Martin's use of the terms 'identity' and 'identical.' Are they used precisely? consistently? without contradiction? to good effect? 

8. Explain the use of the term 'trait genderization' and 'Postulate of Specialized Natures.' How does it relate to sex equality? Why does Martin consider 'traits' and social role significant? 

9. In the conclusion to Martin's essay, evaluate the use of the terms 'identical' and 'equal;' 'different' and 'appropriate.' Are the distinctions useful? Appropriate? Good? 

10. According to Martin, is 'differential treatment' good and laudable? 

Science & Body Image 

Recommended Readings: Stannard: 'The Mask of Beauty,' 187-203; Susan Bordo: 'Reading the Slender Body,' 83-112; Kathy Davis: {Hypatia 6, no. 2 (1991)} 'Remaking the She-Devil: A Critical Look at Feminist Approaches to Beauty,' 21-43 

Discussion Questions: 

1. What are the strongest arguments for and against the 'Miss America Contest'? 

2. There has been much discussion in recent years about bulimia and anorexia. Are these conditions related to science, sex, and race? 

3. What is beauty (Plato asked)? Describe a beautiful woman; what qualities does the ideal female body possess? Describe the perfect female body; the perfect male body. 

4. List canons of beauty and fashion that involved painful or harmful effects; annoyance and discomfort. What pattern do you see in the canon of beauty for females? 

5. Distinguish and describe nude and naked; descriptive; erotic; pornographic. 

6. Is the human body beautiful? Is beauty linked to a body sexed? Sexual? Sexy? Discuss the relation of beauty, sex, and gender; how are adjectives genderized? 

7. Develop a cosmetic continuum based on physical intervention and social appearance {e.g., from minimal foundation garments and light make-up to wigs, to liposuction}. Discuss the criteria for your continuum and the arrangement of the elements. Explain. 

8. Did you know that Raquel Welch's IQ is higher than Maria Goeppert-Mayer's? 

9. How would you characterize Stannard's position regarding beauty? sex? sexuality? 

10. Are women narcissists? {p. 201} Exhibitionists? {p. 202} Explain. Do 'all men have an unconscious desire to be female'? {p.202}. Discuss. 

11. How is 'slender' related to body and soul? Distinguish 'intelligible body' and 'useful body.' Discuss body and power relations; microcosm; 'bulge' as metaphor for anxiety. 

12. Discuss slenderness & the social body in light of Mary Douglas' 'natural symbols.' {p96}. 

13. What's desire got to do with it? Self? Management {control}? 'self'? 

14. In the Davis article, discuss 'false consciousness;' give examples and counter-examples. 

15. Compare Davis and Bordo on beauty. Analyze Davis' thesis; how does she use 'ordinary;' 'taking life into one's own hands;' 'suffering;' 'fair;' 'femininity is constructed;' 'unequal power relations;' 'authentic female self;' the 'oppression model; the 'dilemmatic situation' regarding cosmetic surgery. Do these issues apply to race? 

Recommended Readings: Block & G. Dworkin: {The IQ Controversy}, 'The Lippmann-Terman Debate: The Mental Age of Americans,' 4- 92. 
 

Discussion Questions: 

1. Why do people disagree so vehemently over mental testing? 

2. What evidence in mental testing is agreed upon and generally accepted? 

3. Can competence be distinguished from intelligence? Explain; give examples of different types of aptitude testing. 

4. What is your position regarding a genetic component to intelligence? Provide reasons and evidence for your views. 

5. What are the issues in the Lippmann-Terman debate? On what grounds do the oppositions differ? What are the assumptions? forms of evidence? methods? 

6. Define IQ; what is mental age? average? median? How is the term 'reliability' used in these readings? How does mental testing relate to science, sex, race? Give examples. 

7. What is the relationship between the question of heritability and changeability? 

8. Analyze the debate regarding IQ testing and racial groupings. What are the issues? 

9. What issues of assumption, method, evidence, application, and prescription can be identified in the Lewontin-Jensen debate? Give specific examples. 

10. Compare the issues raised in the Dworkin reading with that of Gould. How would you characterize the emphasis given to certain issues by the different authors? 

Recommended Readings: Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 'Equality, Moral & Social;' 'Racism;' Wasserstrom: 'Racism & Sexism,' 75-105; Thalberg: 'Viseral Racism,' 178-183; Boxill: 'Sexual Blindness & Sexual Equality, 181-190; Dorinda Outram: Essay Review {BJHS}, 'Fat, gorillas and misogyny: women's history in science,' 361-367. 

Discussion Questions: 

1. Distinguish the various uses of the term 'equality.' Why does the term often seem so 'slippery'? Give examples of careless usage of the term; expand and articulate 'equality' employing alternative terms with different or nuanced usages. 

2. Racism has social, political, moral, and other connotations. Name five kinds of racism. 3. Are racism and sexism similar? How are they associated with science? 

4. Outline Wasserstrom's argument. What are the issues? What are Wasserstrom's assumptions? How does he employ argument? evidence? 

5. Think critically about Wasserstrom's 'separate bathrooms' illustration. What 'scientific' justifications {rationalizations} might be employed for separate toilets for the 'races'? for the sexes? Do you feel uncomfortable about unisex toilets? Shared toilets? Open toilets? Public toilets without 'stalls'? Explain. 

6. List stereotypes of the male sex; female sex; African-American males; African-American females. Consider questions of contact; contamination; fear; shame; control. Re-consider the categories discussed in Spelman. How do these issues relate to science? 

7. Discuss the concepts of race and color; hermaphroditism, androgyny, unisex; racial assimilation and sexual assimilation. What do you make of the similarities? differences? 

8. Give examples of viseral racism. Is there viseral sexism? Compare and contrast. 

9. Analyze 'Sexual Blindness' and the egalitarianism of Boxill; delineate the arguments. 

10. Newton presents a case against reverse discrimination; detail and evaluate her assumptions and arguments. 

11. What is Outram's major interpretive claim? What are her assumptions? arguments? evidence? tone? Provide reasons and textual evidence for your position. 

1. It is important to state succinctly, in several sentences, the author's thesis. The thesis statement represents the author's position and interpretation regarding the subject/content of the writing. 

2. What are the author's objectives? Why do you think the author chose this topic or selected this problem? What is the purpose in writing this book? Is it good problem selection? Does the work continue an historiographic tradition? Does it respond to a different tradition? Is there an ax to grind? 

3. Having addressed the thesis, purpose, and objectives, what are the most important claims? Conclusions? Use succinct direct quotation to support your position or interpretation. 

4. Good writing involves argument and evidence. Describe the structure and show how the organization relates to the argument. Are assumptions implicit? Explicit? Are there superfluous and irrelevant statements? Is the presentation cogent? What counter arguments does the author anticipate? 

5. What kinds of evidence are used? Does the writer use relevant examples? What types of examples and evidence are omitted? What kinds of evidence are used--factual, empirical, statistical? Does the author employ hypotheses? Are there speculations? Is the author clear when using interpretive models? 

6. Concerning appeals to authority: Are citations numerous? Do citations refer to descriptive, summary statements; close arguments; direct quotations of contemporary authors? contextual 'historical texts'? 

7. How would you characterize the audience? How would the author characterize the audience? What is the context--essay, chapter, journal, publisher, country, discipline, specialty, etc. 

8. Characterize the author's use of language and tone; do definitions serve the purpose? Does the author use metaphor, mathematics, statistics, technical language, diagrams, pictures, jargon? 

9. Is the writing convincing and persuasive? Why or why not? Relate your evaluation to the thesis, purpose, and objectives and make clear what standards or criteria you are using to analyze the argument. How is the author's writing best described? Is it descriptive; prescriptive; explanatory? Is it issue- oriented; directed toward problem-solving? solution-presenting? Is the problem or solution defined and discussed fairly and adequately? Do you find unsupported opinion or bias? 

10. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the work? Specifically, how could it be improved? Formulate one or two questions that need to be addressed. Attempt to describe where in the text you would engage this writer in order to enter into the reformulation of the problem and/or argument. Refine your position; consider your assumptions, thesis, objectives, purpose, argument, evidence, structure, tone. Read Strunk & White, Elements of Style annually. r.hatch.jan.2002 

2. Make a separate list of questions and concerns with specific reference to pages in the text. Be prepared to defend your examples. Issues are the key: identify; define; classify; illustrate; compare and contrast; analyze. Read the material carefully, critically, analytically, and creatively. 

3. What are the issues and what is the argument about: evidence; reasoning; means of persuasion. Do the issues involve description (what is the major impression?); narration (relate the time, pattern, point of view, selection of material, meaning). How is the argument affected by structure, diction, metaphor, tone? Audience? Finally, stick to the text; resist the seductions of free association. Readings are shared.

2. Be prepared; research your topic thoroughly and then practice your presentation. Confidence is fostered by understanding (careful research and preparation) and effective communication requires the added effort of acknowledging your audience. Pay attention to reasoned and creative strategies for your presentation. Your first obligation is clarity, followed by rigor. Have textual evidence at hand. 

3. If you evaluate your subject with care, you will know what should be emphasized and what can be omitted in the give-and-take of discussion. Think critically about your arguments, evidence, and examples.

2. Focus attention on the assumptions of the presentation; the structure of the argument; the types of evidence presented (or neglected); the examples selected. Have textual evidence at hand. 

3. If warranted, propose alternative assumptions; suggest more effective arguments, assuming that you have reasons and evidence; propose additional and/or alternative evidence; counter examples, etc. 

4. Avoid gamesmanship--'making points,' 'louder voice,' and 'fastest gun,' are unproductive. Effective conversation benefits everyone. Present your views succinctly; learn from others by acknowledging their effectiveness. If you're brilliant and articulate, don't dominate discussion on this conviction alone. 

The topics for the Lesson Plans should be discussed with the instructor. All Lesson Plans should focus on an aspect of science and sex and/or race. 

Begin Early: The most difficult task is selecting manageable and useful topics; central to your success is restricting the topic and focusing on clearly identified issues and supporting your position with evidence. Begin early; I suggest the following procedure: 

1. Clarify for yourself what topic holds the greatest interest; determine what issues make the topic meaningful, controversial, troubling. Find the best general sources available to help clarify your concerns. Set a time limit for yourself; you must identify a topic, clarify the issues, and if the topic is manageable. Are there sources available? How can the topic be more narrowly focused? 

2. Once you are satisfied with your topic and that sources are available, you must then begin to research your topic with good organizational skills and discipline. Don't get side tracked; as Lewis Carroll suggested to the Alice: Begin at the beginning; go to the end; then stop. 

3. Computer Search: Making the library work for you is a critical and joyful experience. 

First, use LUIS; if you need help, arrange for assistance from the reference librarian. Check the major authors most frequently cited in the works that you have already consulted. Good research is sleuthing: read footnotes with care; dig through the evermore detailed layers of scholarly publication--which often means specialized journal articles. 

Second, discuss your project with the reference librarian; inquire what search options (on-line; CD-ROM) are available and most promising. Pursue every avenue for titles that seem promising. Obtain 'hardcopy' printouts for future use. 

Third, sift and winnow. Think about how existing publications have identified, organized, and interpreted the issues that initially drew you to the topic. Having obtained copies of the books, monographs, articles, and other materials, read them with care. 

4. Lesson Plan: A Good Outline: An outline is required for most successful writers. It should include the following components: a) Thesis: The thesis statement is critical; it reduces to one clear sentence your considered conclusion--your position and interpretation--of the problem, question, or issue that you initially identified. Most writers labor distil their entire research essay into a simple declarative sentence. It will be difficult; it requires careful thought. b) Objectives: Your objectives state clearly what you hope to achieve in the essay, that is, what you will identify, describe, illustrate, and demonstrate, in your essay. c) appropriate examples; d) thoughtful and meaningful activities that relate directly to the thesis and objectives. 

5. Bibliography: Having had your topic supported by a general literature search, an outline with carefully considered thesis and objective statements, you must also develop a Bibliography on your topics as 'Works Consulted.' The format should follow The Chicago Manual of Style, which has become an industry standard in academe. Follow this manual for other citations as necessary.

For examples of earlier Lesson Plans (format, content, style) click.